Physiology lectures free download

Module Skeletal Homeostasis Describe the cellular andextracellular matrix reorganization that occurs in response to stress force onbones. Describe the passive and activeresponses that occur in cartilage when stress force on the tissue changes.

Describe two disorders of the skeletal system that can result from calcium deficiency. Explain how the skeletal systemand endocrine system interact for calcium homeostasis. Module Skeletal Integration of Systems Discuss ways in which other bodysystems integrate with the skeletal system. Identify and discuss components of the muscular system. Review common facts and myths about the muscular system. Module Muscular Structures and Functions Define the terms muscle tone, hypotonia and hypertonia.

Define the terms prime mover or agonist , antagonist, synergist and fixator and provide an example of each. Define the terms: aponeuroses, tendons, bursae. Describe different fiber organization parallel, convergent, pinnate, sphincter and how the organization is related to functions.

Describe the composition of the connective tissue layer that surrounds each cell, fascicle, muscle and group of muscles. Describe the difference between isometric and isotonic contractions of muscle. Differentiate among the three classes of levers in terms of the relative position of fulcrum, effort and load, as well as in terms of the relative power and range of motion.

Module Muscular Levels of Organization Compare and contrast the structure, location in the body and function of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. Define and describe the functions of major cellularorganelles in human cells. Describe how the parallel organization of a sarcomere relates to force generation; predict what effect changes in filament overlap would have on muscle function. Describe myoblast fusion to generate multinucleated skeletal muscle cells and tissue structure.

Describe the anatomy of the neuromuscular junction. Describe the difference between tetanus and treppe. Describe the different structural levels of skeletal muscle organization.

Describe the interaction of actin and myosin in force generation. Identify which cofactors ions and proteins regulate actin-myosin force generation. Describe the mechanisms that muscle fibers use to generate ATP for muscle contraction. Describe the process of activetransport, its energy requirements, and list examples of substances that useit.

Describe the sequence of events involved in the contraction cycle of skeletal muscle. Describe the specialized structures of muscle cells. Explain how an electrical signal from the nervous system is communicated to muscle cells.

Explain how the cellular organization of fused skeletal muscle cells allows muscle tissue to contract properly. Explain the effects of summation and recruitment on muscle contraction.

Explain the three phases twitch undergoes as viewed on a myogram. Identify skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle cells by anatomical features. List the anatomical and metabolic characteristics of fast, slow, and intermediate muscle fibers. List the sources of energy used in muscle contraction.

Module Muscular Homeostasis Describe how an improperly functioning skeletal muscular system would affect other systems. Describe several factors that can affect the endurance of muscles. Explain the role of the muscular system in maintaining temperature homeostasis. Provide examples of factors that can affect muscle size. Module Muscular Integration of Systems Describe how an improperly functioning skeletal muscular system would affect other systems. Describe how muscle tissue within the cardiovascular system contributes to proper function.

Describe how muscle tissue within the digestive system contributes to proper function. Unit 7: Integumentary System Module Integumentary System Introduction Explore common facts and myths about the integumentarysystem. Explore examples of homeostasis in the integumentary system. Identify and discuss components of the integumentarysystem. Module Integumentary Structures and Functions Describe the main function of each layer of the integumentary system. Module Integumentary Levels of Organization Contrast the structure and function ofeccrine merocrine glands, apocrine glands, and sebaceous glands.

Describe four functions of hair. Describe how the distribution of adipose tissue differs based on gender,age, diet and exercise. Describe how the molecular assembly of keratinsprovidesstrength to integumentary tissues. Describe inorder,from simplest to most complex, the major levels of organization of the integumentary system. Describe the complementaryfunctioningof the cells of the epidermis. Describe the differences between the three categories of skin cancer.

Describe the function of melanin and discuss the consequences of reduced melanin. Describe the functions of melanocytes.

Describe the functions ofthe epidermis. Describe the production and function of vitamin D and discuss the consequences of reduced vitamin D. Describe the role of melanocytes inproducing skin pigmentation and also protecting mitotic cells inthestratum basale from UV damage. Describe the structure and function offingernailsand toenails. Describe the structure and roles of the accessory structures of the integumentary system. Describe the structure of hair andof ahair follicle.

Describe the three stages of hair growth. Describe the two different layers of the dermis. Explain common causes of hair loss. Explain how wrinkles and stretch marks are related to the collagen and elastin fibers in the dermis. Explain why the histology of the dermisiswell-suitedfor its functions.

Explain why the histology of theepidermis iswell-suitedfor its functions. Explain why the histology of thesubcutaneous layer iswell-suitedfor its functions. Identify and describe the layers ofthe epidermis, indicating which are found in thin skin and which are found in thickskin. Identify and describe the subcutaneoustissue, including the tissue types making up subcutaneous tissue. Identify the cells of the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.

Identify the cells of theepidermis based on their location and anatomic structure stem cells ofthestratum basale, keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkelcells. Identify the tissue type makingup the epidermis. Module Integumentary System Homeostasis Compare homeostasis of cell numberand mitotic rate in the epidermis with pathologicalconditions,including psoriasis and skin cancer.

Comparethermoregulationby the integumentary systemas it pertainstosubcutaneous fat, hair,sweatand blood flow. Describe different sensory receptors located in the integumentary system. Describe how a medical professional can use changes in the appearance of the skin to predict certain medical conditions. Describe the cells involved in repairing damaged skin. Describe the effect ofscarringon regeneration of accessory structures. Explain changes in the integumentary system that occur because of puberty and advanced age.

Predict issues related to loss ofskin in burn victims forfirst-,second-andthird-degreeburns. Unit 8: Endocrine System Module Endocrine Structures and Functions Define homeostasis and describe the multiple levels of homeostatic maintenance in physiology. Describe the major functions of the endocrinesystem. Identify major diseases associated with the endocrine systemand their causes.

Module Endocrine Levels of Organization Compare the hormones secreted from organs with secondaryendocrine function and the primary function of these organs. Compare the production of hormones in the thyroid to otherendocrine glands. Define G-protein-coupled hormone receptors and describe howthey are messengers for signal transduction.

Define intracellular and plasma membrane hormone receptors and describe howthey impact cellular gene expression. Describe how hormones are involved in loops of homeostasisincluding positive feedback and negative feedback.

Describe the endocrine glands and hormones involved in thereproductive system. Describe the precursor molecules of amino acidhormones. Describe the precursor molecules of lipid-derived hormones and identify howlipid-derived hormones are transported. Describe the precursor molecules of peptide-derivedhormones. Describe the structure of the adrenal cortex and whathormones it produces. Describe the structure of the adrenal medulla and whathormones it produces.

Describe the structure of the anterior pituitary and whathormones it produces. Describe the structure of the pancreas and whathormones it produces. Describe the structure of the parathyroid glands and whathormones these glands produce. Describe the structure of the pineal gland and whathormones it produces. Describe the structure of the posterior pituitary and whathormones it produces.

Describe the structure of the thyroid gland and whathormones it produces. Discuss how hormone receptors maintain specificity inendocrine regulation. List and compare the mechanisms of hormonalstimulation.

List the different locations for hormone receptors. List the endocrine glands, identify their locations within the body,and name the primary hormones that they secrete. List the hormones secreted by the hypothalamus and describe thefunctions that these hormones regulate.

Use anatomical terms to describe the location of the adrenal glandsand the layers of the adrenal glands. Module Endocrine System Homeostasis and Integration of Systems Describe differences between short-term and long-term stressresponses. Describe how endocrine function regulates growth and list thehormones involved in the process.

Describe how endocrine function regulates the femalereproductive system and list the hormones involved in the process. Describe how endocrine function regulates the homeostasis ofcalcium levels in the body and list the hormones involved in the process.

Describe how endocrine function regulates the homeostasis ofglucose and list the hormones involved in the process. Compare the roles of insulin andthyroid hormones. Describe how endocrine function regulates the homeostasis ofwater in the body and list the hormones involved in the process.

Describe how endocrine function regulates the male reproductivesystem and list the hormones involved in the process. Describe how endocrine function regulates the production of milk andlist the hormones involved in the process. Describe how endocrine function regulates the reproductive system.

List the hormones that are common to males and females. Identify how endocrine function regulates the homeostasis ofdifferent organ systems in the body. Predict factors or situations affecting the endocrine system thatcould disrupt homeostasis. Module Digestive Structures and Functions Describe how material moves through the digestive system. Describe the major functions of the digestivesystem.

Explain how mechanical and chemical digestion work togetherto produce absorbable nutrients. Explain how nutrients are absorbed in the digestivesystem.

Identify and discuss the histology and functions of theplicae circulares, villi, and microvilli. Identify organs of the digestive system based on positionand structure; identify the general function of each.

Describe how secretions from the GI tract, salivary glands,pancreas and the liver work together to digest nutritive molecules in food. Describe how the stomach uses a combination of mechanical force and chemicals todigest food.

Describe the defecation reflex and the function of theinternal and external anal sphincters. Describe the functions of the different regions of the smallintestine. Describe the location of the parotid, submandibular, andsublingual glands and their respective ducts. Describe the pathway of the bolus from mouth to stomach,identifying major structures and describing their role in facilitating the process ofdeglutition swallowing.

Describe the pathway of the chyme through the stomach, identifying majorstructures and describing their adaptations and role in the various digestiveactivities.

Describe the process of enzymatic hydrolysis for nutritiveorganic compounds Describe the role of bacteria living in the largeintestine. Explain how different organ systems relate to one another to maintain homeostasis.

Explain the process of deglutition, including the changes inposition of the glottis and larynx that prevent aspiration and peristalsis. Explain the regulation of gastric secretion in thecephalic phase, the gastric phase and the intestinal phase. Identify and describe the histological structure and function of each of the four layers of the GI tract wall.

Identify and discuss the functions of the gall bladder. Identify and discuss the functions of the large intestine andits structures. Contains ATP used in chromosome replication d. It is smaller in secretary cell than in non-secretary.

Specifies the chemical structure of enzymes. Endoplasmic reticulum b. Cilia c. Centrioles d. Flagella e. But in multicultural organisms, they do not function in isolation. They work together in-group of similar cells called tissue. Tissue is a group of similar cell and their intercellular substance that have a similar embryological origin and function together to perform a specialized activity.

A science that deals with the study of a tissue is Histology. These are epithelial, connective, muscular, and Nervous tissue.

Covering and lining epithelium are classified based on the arrangement of layers and cell shape. Thus, it lines the air sacs of lung, in kidneys, blood vessels and lymph vessels. It lines the gastro-intestinal tract gall bladder, excretory ducts of many glands.

Stratified squamous epithelium is subdivided in to two based on presence of keratin. Non-Keratnized stratified squamous epithelium is found in wet surface that are subjected to considerable wear and tear. Example: - Mouth, tongue and vagina. In Keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium the surface cell of this type forms a tough layer of material containing keratin.

Example: skin. Keratin, is a waterproof protein, resists friction and bacterial invasion. Its main function is secretion. It functions in protection and secretion. Transitional epithelium The distinction is that cells of the outer layer in transitional epithelium tend to be large and rounded rather than flat.

The feature allows the tissue to be stretched with out breakage. A gland may consist of one cell or a group of highly specialized epithelial cell. Glands can be classified into exocrine and endocrine according to where they release their secretion. Their main products are mucous, oil, wax, perspiration and digestive enzyme. Endocrine: They ultimately secret their products into the blood system. The secretions of endocrine glands are always hormones.

Hormones are chemicals that regulate various physiological activities. Classification of exocrine glands They are classified by their structure and shape of the secretary portion. Further more if the duct does not branch it is referred as a simple gland and if it branch's it is compound gland.

Mesenchyme is the tissue from which all other connective tissue eventually arises. It is located beneath the skin and along the developing bone of the embryo. Adult connective tissue It is differentiated from mesenchyme and does not change after birth. Found where there is loose connective tissue.

It is common around the kidney, at the base and on the surface of the heart, in the marrow of long bone, as a padding around joints and behind the eye ball. Exists in areas where tensions are exerted in various directions. In areas where fibers are interwoven with out regular orientation the forces exerted are in many directions. This occurs in most fascia like deeper region of dermis, periosteum of bone and membrane capsules. In other areas dense connective tissue adapted tension in one direction and fibers have parallel arrangement.

They stretch and snap back in to original shape. It also forms vocal cord. It helps to form a delicate supporting storma for many organs including liver, spleen and lymph nodes. It also helps to bind together the fibers cells of smooth muscle tissue.

It consists of a dense network of collagenous fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondriotin sulfate. The strength is because of collagenous fibers.

The cells of a matured cartilage are called chondrocyte. The surface of a cartilage is surrounded by irregularly arranged dense connective tissue called perichondrium. Found at joints over long bones as articlar cartilage and forms costal cartilage at ventral end of ribs. It also forms nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchial tubes. It forms embryonic skeleton, reinforce respiration, aids in free movement of joints and assists rib cage to move during breathing.

Fibro cartilage: they are found at the symphysis pubis, in the inter-vertebral discs and knee. It provides support and protection.

Elastic cartilage: in elastic cartilage the chondrocyte are located in thread like network of elastic fibers. Elastic cartilage provides strength and elasticity and maintains the shape of certain organs like epiglottis, larynx, external part of the ear and Eustachian tube. The osseous tissue together with cartilage and joints it comprises the skeletal system. It contains intercellular substance plasma. Plasma is a straw colored liquid, consists water and dissolved material.

The formed elements of the blood are erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes. The fibrous characteristics of a blood revealed when clotted. Classification of muscles is made by structure and function. Muscle tissues are grouped in to skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue. It is involuntary and non-striated. These are the neurons and the neuroglia.

Neurons are nerve cells, sensitive to various stimuli. It converts stimuli to nerve impulse. Neurons are the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

It contains 3 basic portions. These are cell body, axons and dendrites. Neuroglias are cells that protect, nourish and support neurons. Clinically they are important because they are potential to replicate and produce cancerous growths.

They line body cavities, cover surfaces, connect, or separate regions, structures and organs of the body. The three kinds of membranes are mucous, serous and synovial.

It is an epithelial layer. Mucous membranes line the entire gastro intestine, respiratory excretory and reproductive tracts and constitute a lining layer of epithelium. The connective tissue layer of mucous membrane is lamina propra. It lines body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior. Covers the organs that lie with in the cavity.

Serosa is composed of parietal layer pertaining to be outer and visceral layer pertaining to be near to the organ. Pleura and pericardium are serous membrane that line thoracic and heart cavity respectively.

The epithelial layer of a serious membrane secret a lubricating fluid called serious fluid. The fluid allows organs to glide one another easily. Therefore, it is not epithelial membrane. It lines the cavities of the freely movable joints. Like serious membrane it lines structures that do not open to the exterior. Synovial membranes secret synovial fluid that lubricate articular cartilage at the ends of bones as they move at joints.

Unicellular glands composed of columnar cells that secrete mucous are known as:- a Cilia b Microvilli c Goblet cell d Endocrine glands e Basal cell 2. A group of similar cell that has a similar embryological origin and operates together to perform a specialized activity is called:- a Organ b Tissue c System d Organ system e Organism 3. Which of the following is involuntary and striated? Which tissue is characterized by the presence of cell bodies, dendrites and axons?

These include hair, nails, and several types of glands. The system functions in protection, in the regulation of body temperature, in the excretion of waste materials, in the synthesis of vitamin D3 with the help of sunrays, and in the reception of various stimuli perceived as pain, pressure and temperature.

Skin has 3 main parts. These are the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin that is made of stratified squamous epithelium. It has no blood supply. Epidermis contains strata. These are stratum cornium, lucidium, granulosum, spinosum and basale, Stratum cornium is the outer, dead, flat, Keratinized and thicker layer. Stratum lucidium is next to stratum cornium. It consists of flat, translucent layers of cells. This stratum found in thick skin only.

Stratum granulosum lies just below stratum lucidium. The cells in this layer are in the process of keratinization. The cells in this stratum have a poly-hydral shape and they are in the process of protein synthesis. Stratum basale rests on the basement membrane, and it is the last layer of epidermis next to stratum spinosum. Stratum basale together with stratum spinosum constitute stratum germinativum.

Most part of the skin is composed of dermis. Dermis contains papillary and reticular layers. Papillary layer is next to stratum basale of the epidermis. It contains loose connective tissue with in the bundles of collagenous fibers. It also contains loose capillaries that nourish the epidermis. Indentations of papillary layer in the palms and soles reflected over the epidermis to create ridges.

Reticular layer: next to papillary layer. It is made of dense connective tissue with course of collagenous fiber bundles that crisscross to form a storma of elastic network. In the reticular layer many blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, fat cell, sebaceous oil glands and hair roots are embedded. Hypoderms: it is found beneath the dermis. It is a subcutaneous layer under the skin. Hypodermis is composed of loose, fibrous connective tissue, which is richly supplied with lymphatic and blood vessels and nerves.

Hypodermis is much thicker than dermis. With in it coils of ducts of sudoriferous sweat glands, and the base of hair follicles. Figure: 4. Protection: against harmful microorganisms, foreign material and it prevents excessive loss of body fluid. Temperature regulation: with the sweat, heat leaves the body 3. Excretion: Small amount of waste products from the body such as urea 4. Synthesis: By the action of UV.

Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin. Vitamin D is necessary for absorption calcium from intestine. Sensory reception: it contains sensory receptors of heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain. The presence of melanin a dark pigment produced by specialized cell called melanocyte 2. The accumulation of yellow pigment carotene. Eccrine glands are numerous over the palms and soles.

Their secretary portion is embedded in the hypodermis. The sweat they secret is colorless, aqueous fluid containing neutral fats, albumin, urea, lactic acid and sodium chloride. Its excretion helps body temperature to be regulated. Apocrine glands are odiferous, found at the armpits, in the dark region around nipples, the outer lips of the vulva, and the anal and genital regions.

They are larger and deeply situate than eccrine sweet glands. An apocrine sweet gland becomes active at puberty. They respond to stress including sexual activity. The ceruminous glands in the outer ear canal are also apocrine skin glands. Their main functions are lubrication and protection. They are connected to hair follicles and secret oily secretion called sebum. It is a semi fluid substance composed of entirely lipids. It functions as a permeability barrier, an emollient skin softening and a protective a gent against bacteria and fungi.

This type of gland found all over the body except in the palms and soles. Acne vulgaris is a condition when there is over secretion of sebum, which may enlarge the gland and plug the pore.

Because it arises from the skin, it is considered an appendage of the skin. It covers the entire body except the palms, soles, lips, tip of penis, inner lips of vulva and nipples. Hair consist epithelial cell arranged in three layers from the inside out medulla, cortex and cuticle.

The bulb is composed of the matrix of epithelial cells. The bulb pushes in ward along its bottom to form a papilla of blood rich connective tissue. Part of the hair follicle is attached with the bundle of smooth muscle about halfway down the follicle.

These are arrecter pili muscles. When it contracts in pulls the follicles and its hair to an erect position producing goose bump. Hair grows and when it finishes its growth sheds. The growth rate of hair depends on its position. Scalp hair grows 0.

Hair sheds when it growth is complete. Just before a hair is to be shed, the matrix cell gradually become inactive and eventually dies. They are made of hard keratin. Nails are composed of flat, cornified plates on the dorsal surface of the distal segment of the fingers and toe. The proximal part of nail is lunula, which is white in its color because of the capillaries underneath are covered by thick epithelium.

Nail has body and root. The body is the exposed part and the root is hidden under the skin. The nail ends with a free edge that overhangs the tip of the fingers.

Epithelial layer covering underneath of the fore-hang nail is hyponychyem. The nail rests on an epithelial layer of skin called nail bed. The thicker layer of skin beneath the nail root is the matrix, where new cells are generated. Nail grows 0. Thin layers of epidermis called eponychium originally cover the growing nail. Our nail protects our fingers and toes.

It also allows picking up and grasping objects as well we use them to scratch. Which of the following skin layers undergoes cellular regeneration? Sudoriferous glands secret their secretion in response to: a Physiological process b Heat c Stress d Sexual experience e In all of the above condition 5. Hair covers all of the following parts of the body except: - a Sole b Face c Neck d Trunk.

It is strong yet light adapted for its function of body protection and motion. The skeletal system includes bones, joints, cartilages and ligaments. The joint give the body flexibility and allow movements to occur. But from structural point of view, the human skeletal system consists of two main types of supportive connective tissue, bone and cartilage. Functions of the skeletal system: 1. Support: it forms the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft organs. Protection: bones protect soft body organs.

Movement: skeletal muscles attached to the skeletal system use the bone to levers to move the body and its part.

Storage: fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones. Bone it self-serves as a storehouse of minerals. The most important being calcium and phosphors. Blood cell formation: it occurs with in the marrow cavities of certain bones. Living bone is not dry, brittle or dead. It is a moist changing, productive tissue that is continually resorbed, reformed and remodeled. The most obvious long bones are in the arm and leg. They act as levers that pulled by contraction of muscles. Short bones are about equal in length, width and thickness, which are shaped with regular orientation.

They occur in the wrist and ankle. Flat bones are thin or curved more often they are flat. This includes ribs, scapulae, sternum and bone of cranium. Irregular bones, they do not fit neatly into any other category. Examples are the vertebral, facial, and hipbone. Typical sesamoid bones are patella and pisiform carpal bone, which are in the tendon of quadriceps femuris and flexor carp ulnaris muscle respectively.

Accessory bones are most commonly found in the feet. They usually occur in the developing bone and do not fuse completely. They look like extra bones or broken on X-ray. Sutural wormian bones are examples of accessory bones. Figure: 5. Gross anatomy of a typical long bone You can take Tibia in the leg one of the longest bones in the body. In adults it have: Diaphis, the tubular shaft, hallow cylindrical with walls of compact bone tissue.

The center of the cylinder is the medullary cavity, which is filled with marrow. Epiphysis is roughly spherical end of the bone. It is wider than the shaft. Flat and irregular bones of the trunk and limbs have many epiphysis and the Figure: 5.

It is made up of epiphyseal plate and adjacent bony trabeculae of cancellous bone tissue. The red marrow also known as myeloid tissue Endosteum is the lining the medullary cavity of compact bone tissue and covering the trabeculae of spongy bone tissue. Periosteum: it is covering the outer surface of the bone. It is absent at joints and replaced by articular cartilage. A network of collagenous fibers in the matrix gives bone tissue its strength and flexibility.

Most bones have an outer sheet of compact bone tissue enclosing an interior spongy bone tissue. It is very hard and dense. It appears to naked eye to be solid but not. Compact bone tissue contains cylinders of calcified bone known as osteons Haversion system. Osteons are made up of concentric layers called lamellae, which are arranged seemingly in wider and wider drinking straws.

In the center of the osteons are central canals haversion canal , which are longitudinal canals that contains blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels. Lacunae Little spaces that houses osteocytes bone cells are contained in lamella.

Radiating from each lacuna are tiny canaliculi containing the slender extensions of the osteocytes where nutrients and wastes can pass to and from central canal. Spongy cancellous Bone tissue Is in the form of an open interlaced pattern that withstands maximum stress and supports in shifting stress. Trabeculae are tiny spikes of bone tissue surrounded by bone matrix that has calcified.

They found mostly in the deepest layer of periosteum and endosteum. They have high mitotic potential and can be transformed into bone forming cells osteoblasts. They have a cell body that occupies a lacuna.

Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts. They together with osteoclasts play an important role of homeostasis by helping to release calcium. Osteoclasts are derived from white blood cells called monocytes. They are believed to be derived from osteoblast that ceases their physiological activity. Bone in embryo develops in two ways: Intra-membranous ossification, If bone develops directly from mesenchymal tissue.

Examples are vault of the skull, flat bones and part of the clavicle. In this type of ossification development continues rapidly from the center. Endochondrial Ossification, When bone tissue develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. Endochondrial ossification produces long bones and all other bones not formed by intra-membranous ossification. Table 5. Depression and openings Fissure narrow, cleft like opening between adjacent parts of bone. Example: Supra of orbital fissure.

Foramen, a bigger, round opening. Example: Foramen magnum. Meatus: a relatively narrow tubular canal. Example: External auditory meatus Groves and sulcus: are deep furrow on the surface of a bone or other structure. Example: Inter-vertebral and radial groves of humers. Fossa: shallow depressed area. Example: Mandibular fossa. Example Medial condyle of femur Head, expanded, rounded surface at proximal end of a bone often joined to shaft by a narrowed neck.

Example: Head of femur Facet: small, flat surface. Example: Articular facet of ribs. Example: Greater tubercle of humerus. Tuberosity: it is large, round roughened process. Example: ischeal tuberosity. Trochanter: it is a large, blunt projection found only on femur Crest is a prominent ridge.

Example: Iliac crest. Line: it is a less prominent ridge than a crest. Spinous process spine is a sharp, slender process. Example Ischeal spin Epicondyle is a prominence above condyle. Example medial Epicondyle of Femur 5. These are the axial and appendicular skeleton. The Axial skeleton consist bones that lie around the axis. And the appendicular skeleton consist bones of the body out of the axial group.

These are appendages. Technically, the hyoid bone is not part of the skull. Technically, the term arm refers to the upper extremity between the shoulder and elbow; the forearm is between the elbow and wrist. The upper part of the lower extremity, between the pelvis and knee, is the thigh; the leg is between the knees an ankle. The skull rests on the superior of vertebral column. It is composed of cranial and facial bones. Made up of horizontal, cribriform plate, median perpendicular plate, paired lateral masses; contains ethmoidal sinuses, crista galli, superior and middle conchae.

Forms roof of nasal cavity and septum, part of cranium floor; site of attachment for membranes covering brain. Frontal 1 Anterior and superior parts of cranium, forehead, brow areas. Shaped like large scoop; frontal squama forms forehead; orbital plate forms roof of orbit; supraorbital ridge forms brow ridge; contains frontal sinuses, supraorbital foramen. Protects front of brain; contains passageway for nerves, blood vessels.

Occipital 1 Posterior part of cranium, including base. Slightly curved plate, With turned- up edges; made up of squamous, base, and two lateral parts; contains foramen magnum, occipital condyles, hypo-glossal canals, atlanto-occipital joint, external occipital crest and protuberance.

Protects posterior part of brain; forms foramina for spinal cord and nerves; site of attachment for muscles, ligaments. Parietal 2 Superior sides and roof of cranium, between frontal and occipital bones. Broad, slightly convex plates; smooth exteriors and internal depressions. Protect top, sides of brain, passageway for blood vessels. Sphenoid 1 Base of cranium, anterior to occipital and temporal bones.

Temporal 2 Sides and base of cranium at temples. Made up of squamous, petrous, tympanic, mastoid areas; contain zygomatic process, mandibular fossa, ear Ossicles, mastoid sinuses. Form temples, part of cheekbones; articulate with lower jaw; protect ear ossicles; site of attachments for neck muscles. There are four main sutures in the skull. Fontanels The skeleton of a newly formed embryo consist cartilage or fibrous membrane structures, which gradually replaced by bone the process is called ossification.

At birth membrane filled spaces on the skull are called fontanel. They are found between cranial bones. It closes 18 to 24 months after birth. It is also diamond shaped but smaller than the anterior fontanel. It closes 2 months after birth. Found at the junction of parietal, occiputal and temporal bones. They are irregular in shape and begin to close at 1 or 2 months after birth and completed by 12 months. Thin, cancellous, shaped like curved leaves.

Lacrimal 2 Medial wall of orbit, behind frontal process of maxilla. Small, thin, rectangular; contains depression for lacrimal sacs, nasolacrimal tear duct. Mandible 1 Lower jaw, extending from chin to mandibular fossa of temporal bone. Largest, strongest facial bone; horseshoe-shaped horizontal bony with two perpendicular rami; contains tooth sockets, coronoid, condylar, alveolar processes, mental foramina.

Maxillae 2 Upper jaw and anterior part of hard palate. Made up of zygomatic, frontal, palatine, alveolar processes; contain infraorbital foramina, maxillary sinuses, tooth sockets. Form upper jaw, front of hard palate, part of eye sockets. Small, oblong; attached to a nasal cartilage. Form supports for bridge of upper nose. Palatine 2 Posterior part of hard palate, floor of nasal cavity and orbit; posterior to maxillae.

L-shaped, with horizontal and vertical plates; contain greater and lesser palatine foramina. Horizontal plate forms posterior part of hard palate; vertical plate forms part of wall of nasal cavity, floor of orbit. Vomer 1 Posterior and inferior part of nasal septum. Thin, shaped like plowshare. Forms posterior and inferior nasal septum dividing nasal cavities.

Zygomatic 2 Cheekbones below and lateral to orbit. Curved lateral part of molar cheekbones; made up of temporal process, zygomatic arch; contain zygomatico-facial and zygomatico-temporal foramina. Hyoid 1 Below root of tongue, above larynx. U-shaped, suspended from styloid process of temporal bone; site of attachment for some muscles used in speaking, swallowing.

Ossicles of ear Inside cavity of petrous portion of temporal bone. Convey sound vibrations stapes 2 from eardrum to oval window see Chapter It is formed by bones of the skull. In the orbit there are openings that pass structures. Some of the principal openings and And the structures passing through are: Optic foramen canal passes optic nerve Superior orbital fissure passes supra orbit nerve and artery. Inferior orbital fissure passes maxillary branch of trigeminal and zygomatic nerve and infra orbital vessel.

Supra orbital foramen notch passes occulomotor, trochlear, ophthalmic branch of trigeminal and abducent nerves. Canal for naso lacrimal duct passes naso lacrimal duct. The adult vertebral column contains 26 vertebras. They are fibro-cartilaginous. Each disc is composed of the outer fibrous ring consisting fibro-cartilage called annulus fibrosis and the inner soft, pulpy highly elastic structure called the nucleus pulpous.

The disc permits various movement of the vertebral column, absorb shock and form a strong joint. These are normal curves of the vertebral column. There are 4 normal curves formed by vertebras, two are concave and the other two are convex. In the age of the fetus there is only a single anterior concave curve, but approximately the third post natal month, when the child begin to hold head erect, the cervical curve develops.

Later when the child sits up, stands and walks the lumbar curve develops. The thoracic and sacral curves are anteriorly concave, since they retain the anterior concavity of the fetal curve they are referred primary curves. The vertebral column and vertebral curves source: Carola, R.

It consist the body, vertebral arch and seven processes. The body Centrum , thick, disc shaped, anterior part. It has superior and inferior roughened area for attachment with intervertebral discs. Physiology, 1st Semester Free Download Thank Me Due to the pressure of time lingering over my head when I first started writing the first semester exam notes, the first 40 questions of the first semester exam notes became solely based on other exam notes written by talented students here at this medical school.

However, as the window of opportunity opened for me I was able to extend the spectrum of external sources beyond any physiology exam notes ever written before me. This set of lecture notes has been downloaded times.